Next issue will be posted July 12. Read previous issues through our calendar of issues.

Perhaps you have experienced problems establishing cover crops on your farm, even during relatively good growing conditions. Often, inadequate moisture and cold temperatures make establishment and growth of late summer and fall seeded covers difficult, but what about the times when these limiting factors just could not explain the poor stand?

A potential solution to this problem is learning more about your cover crop seed. Where and when was it grown? Is it a named variety? How was the seed processed? How old is it? These are just a few of the questions you might ask before purchasing cover crop seed if you want to reduce the risk of poor establishment and growth.

Plants are plastic, meaning that they can adapt in certain ways to handle different environments. But genotypes will usually be most productive in their natural habitat. A classic experiment performed by Clausen, Keck and Hiesey in 1940 showed that three varieties of sticky cinquefoil (Potentilla glandulosa) were naturally found at three different altitudes. When the three ecotypes were grown together at each of the three altitudes, they were all proportionally most productive in their native habitat. Cover crop species follow these same general rules and it matters where your cover crop seed is produced. Often, legume cover crops are grown for seed in U.S. west coast states such as Oregon and Washington, where the climate is quite different than what is found in upper Midwestern states.

For example, hairy vetch (Vicia villosa) is often cultivated in Oregon for seed and then sold through retailers in Midwestern and eastern states. This hairy vetch variety is most likely adapted to an environment that has much milder temperatures and year-round gentle precipitation rather than the variable rainfall and harsh cold temperatures in the fall and winter that we face in the upper Midwest. It may grow on your farm, but probably not as well as a variety that was produced in closer proximity with similar environmental conditions.

Sometimes hairy vetch sold in Michigan may have establishment problems and grow poorly. If this is observed, determine where the seed was produced, and if it is a genetic type that is adapted to the Midwest. Also make sure your seed is inoculated with the proper strain of Rhizobium, a bacteria that is essential for nitrogen fixation and legume growth. Legume cover crop establishment is difficult enough, and finding the right variety or selection will improve the success of your cover crop in the environments found on your farm.

It may also be helpful to evaluate the time of the year when the cover crop seed was grown. Cover crops can be sown at different times of the year and still produce seed sometime during their lifetime. However, some species such as winter rye and winter wheat generally require vernalization (winter stress) to bolt, flower and produce seed. A few varieties of cereal rye are summer annuals and do not require this vernalization to produce seed. These generally are less winter hardy varieties. The same goes for winter annual legumes. Hairy vetch varieties grown in areas with very harsh winter environments such as Minnesota are most likely cultivated as a summer annual and will not necessarily be winter hardy, even in relatively warmer climates. Finding a commercial source that produces seed locally, or growing your own seed, are some of the ways that farmers can insure that cover crop seed is suited to an area.

Many identified cultivars are available for the cover crop species we use. Cover crops such as red clover and winter wheat have been cultivated for many years and numerous cultivars have been developed. Buying a named variety of a cover crop will reduce genetic variability and help insure cover crop establishment and successful growth. Common varieties are generally more inexpensive but carry the risk of having changed over time, which may actually increase or decrease establishment and growth (depending among other factors on whether they were exposed to local selection pressure or selection pressure in a different climate). An example is the dry or cold fall conditions found in the upper Midwest, where common varieties produced locally may be more genetically diverse and exhibit more balanced germination and growth across fluctuating environmental conditions. Don’t be afraid to use diverse assemblages of cultivars or cover crop species to buffer strenuous fall environmental conditions and stabilize your cover crop establishment. Often times, retailers will mix species and varieties of seed for you, but it is important to communicate your environmental conditions and the type of mixture required for different cover crop uses on the farm.

Cover crop seed is cultivated, harvested and sorted (if necessary) in several different ways. Certain techniques will be much more destructive to the seed than others. Perhaps you have had an experience where your seed was cracked or had a high amount of chaff. Be specific about obtaining seed that was harvested to be planted again and not just for grain. Also, inquire about the age of the seed before purchasing it. Since cover crop seed is not mass produced, it is sometimes stored for several years before being planted. In some cases, storage time will have moderate effect on germination rates, but when available, obtaining fresh cover crop seed is ideal.

You may find yourself asking questions like, “Should I buy the seed that was grown in my county five years ago or last year’s seed from 2,000 miles away?” Or, “Do I want the crimson clover cultivar that establishes well in dry conditions, but might not over-winter on my farm?” Don’t deliberate on questions like these so much that it causes you to lose sleep, but keep in mind that minor details may make a large difference when establishing cover crops during variable growing conditions in the fall. If you are considering saving your own cover crop seed, this will require understanding of the reproductive systems of different species. Information is widely available regarding how to select and save seed from many plant species, including websites such as http://www.seedsave.org/ and general information about cover crop rates and seeding techniques for upper Midwest cropping systems is available at http://www.covercrops.msu.edu/General/seeding_methods.htm.

GAPs in organics: Fresh produce safety from pre-planting through production

In my travels as a food safety educator, I enjoy the privilege of visiting a variety of fresh produce farm operations from orchards to muck crop to organic growers. When it comes to food safety, conventional method growers will sometimes point the finger away from themselves and insist their practices have to be safer than “those organic growers.” Then sometimes organic growers point the finger away from themselves and insist that their methods are more natural and therefore safer than those “conventional growers.” Of course, in both cases each grower is pointing three fingers back at themselves, needlessly. Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) are about common sense methods to improve food safety and aren’t about pointing fingers at anyone.

When food safety educators present GAPs and Good Handling Practices (GHPs), we emphasize and repeat (to the point of boring the audience) that fresh produce food safety is based on Prevention, Reduction, and Education. I like to emphasize prevention based simply on common sense: the fewer microorganisms and other hazards that are present on the produce, the less likely they will be able to slip through defenses in the packinghouse. This is true regardless of the methods used. Every grower’s focus is best placed in minimizing the risk of foodborne contamination from seed to fork.

When looking for opportunities to reduce your risk of foodborne infection—from pre-planting through production—look hard at the following potential risk areas:

• Previous land-use history
• Manure/fertilizer use
• Water quality (including spray and irrigation methods)
• Worker health and hygiene
• Pesticide management
• Animal and pest control.

Consider each of these basic areas in terms of potential for contamination as you review your pre-planting and production practices. Pathogenic microorganisms (the ones that can make people sick) tend to come from soil, fecal (animal or human) contamination, humans, rodents or insects. Also, keep things in perspective and recognize that we are looking for practical ways to minimize risk. Total elimination of the risk is not practical; therefore, it is not our goal.

Land can be a source of contamination if it has recently been used for purposes other than growing specialty crops. When selecting a site, be sure that it has not been used for livestock in any way for at least 3 years. And while this certainly should automatically be a consideration for organic growers, we still like to remind people to check to be sure the land hasn’t been used for dumping, nor has a history of chemical contamination.

Recognize that when you are handling manure, it is a potential source of contamination. When managed properly, manure will pose little risk to fresh produce. Composting, incorporation and timing are the keys to using manure safely. Composting is preferred since high temperatures and aerobic conditions will kill most pathogenic microorganisms. Refer to organic certification standards for the time and temperature requirements for composting. Preferably, apply manure in the fall or at least two weeks before planting. At the minimum, allow 120 days from the time manure is applied to the date of harvest.

Water is one of the more important potential sources of contamination of fresh produce. Consider your water source and the water quality. Surface water sources (lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, etc.) are a particular concern as are reservoirs or cisterns of rainwater. Wells should be evaluated for potential leaks that may result in siphoning and backflow, as well as the potential for surface water contamination into the well. Back flow valves are critical to preventing chemical, as well as microbial contamination and maintaining the quality of your water source. Testing water for coliforms (recommend <100 cfu/ml) and E. coli (recommend negative) as indicators of pathogenic contamination is an option to consider. A treatment method using chlorine or another type of sanitizer should be considered for your water source if you detect the risk of microbial contamination through testing.

One of the greatest sources of contamination is people. I like to emphasize worker health and hygiene, including the use of sanitary facilities as one of your best opportunities to improve food safety. Human contamination is a possibility preharvest usually through sprays workers have inadvertently contaminated or unsanitary practices in the field. Encourage workers to report health problems, and have alternative work available for those who are sick and could come in contact with the produce in the field. Also, make clean sanitary facilities available very near the field and include some way for workers to wash their hands. Remember that family members are workers when they are working.

Training and education are our most powerful tools for preventing contamination from workers. Worker training videos and DVDs are available for Ohio and Indiana growers via the Fresh Produce Risk Management Initiative being administered by Mid American Ag and Hort Services (MAAHS). Supervisory emphasis on sanitary worker practices and the use of posters as reminders help to reinforce food safety training. Posters about proper hand washing and using field facilities are also available for Ohio and Indiana growers by contacting MAAHS.

Finally a few words about pesticide management and pest control. Following the requirements for use and documentation for pesticide use is normally adequate for managing pesticides safely. It is simply important to remember that pesticides, even natural and organically certified pesticides, are a potential hazard and should be carefully managed to avoid contamination. Excluding animals and pests from the field is critical for food safety. Animals and insects both are potential carriers of some foodborne illnesses.

Once again, we are recommending managing for preventing and reducing the risk as much as is practically possible. You can’t count on washing the microorganisms away if they are already there. Each operation is unique and should be reviewed to determine the potential risks for foodborne illness in each of the critical areas discussed above.

And for Indiana and Ohio fruit and vegetable producers who could use a little help with all of this, feel free to contact us at the Ohio and Indiana Specialty Crop Food Safety Initiative by calling Mid American Ag and Hort Services at 614-246-8286 or emailing us at maahs@ofbf.org . We are funded by the United States Department of Agriculture's Risk Management Agency to provide free materials regarding GAPs, as well as free on-farm consultations through September 2006. Visit us at the MAAHS website at www.midamservices.org and select “Projects” from the list on the left side of the page.

NAN farmer’s buckwheat knowledge shared with northeastern growers

The Northeast Buckwheat Growers Newsletter recently included an article on Warm Region Production, summarizing production practices of New Agriculture Network (NAN) farmer Dave Campbell. Newsletter editor and buckwheat researcher Dr. Thomas Bjorkman of Cornell University interviewed Dave to gather information about production under Midwest conditions which are a little different than in much of the Northeast. The newsletter is available at http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/faculty/bjorkman/buck/NL/606.html

During the interview, Campbell noted that there are three pockets of buckwheat production in the Midwest: near him in northeastern Illinois, in southeastern Illinois, and near Indianapolis. They continue to be viable because there is a group of knowledgeable growers in each of those areas. In minor crops or specialized production systems, these networks are essential to commercial success.

Duane Friend
Natural Resources Management Educator
University of Illinois Extension
Springfield Extension Center

The numbers of on-farm composting facilities in the Midwest have steadily increased over the last 5 to 10 years. Several livestock producers in Illinois, particularly those near urban areas in the central and northern parts of the state, have initiated projects utilizing livestock waste and yard materials. Finished compost is usually applied to crop fields operated by these producers. It is generally accepted that high quality compost will enhance soil quality.

The majority of the upper Midwest is already blessed with excellent soils for growing agricultural crops. However, there are pockets of poorer soils present. For example, several areas in Illinois are mostly sand. One of these areas is in Mason County, located in the center of the state. Soils in this area have very low cation exchange capacities, along with low water holding potential. This area is also over an immense shallow aquifer. The majority of acreage in the county is irrigated by center pivot irrigation systems. The area, sometimes referred to as the “Imperial Valley” of the Midwest, grows a variety of crops, including field corn, soybeans, snap beans, potatoes, popcorn, pumpkins, watermelons and cantaloupes.

Farmers in this area were interested in seeing how much of a change in soil quality would occur in these soils with the addition of compost. To address this, a study was initiated using small plots in an irrigated field. (view images)

A number of cooperators, including University of Illinois Extension, Illinois State University, the Mason County Irrigated Growers Association, the Mason County Farm Bureau, and the Mason County Soil and Water Conservation District participated in the study. Partial funding was supplied through the Illinois Department of Agriculture Sustainable Ag Grant Program.

The study utilized nine subplots. Three of plots received 20 tons/acre of compost annually. Three more received 10 tons/acre, and the other three received no compost. Application began in 2002. Compost was supplied by Illinois State University, which has a composting facility at their research farm. Popcorn or soybeans were grown in rotation.Annual soil testing showed a significant increase in cation exchange capacity (the ability of soil to hold nutrients) in plots where the highest rates of compost were applied. Organic matter contents also appear to have increased, although the increase did not become statistically significant.

Average relative soil water content was checked weekly during the growing season.A reading of 100% means that the soil is at field capacity, or holding as much plant available water as possible.Again, at the 20 tons/acre rate, the relative water content appears to have increased slightly, but not enough to be statistically significant. It was apparent that in some weeks irrigation needed to be more frequent on all plots, as some readings produced very low or even negative results. Yields may have increased slightly in the compost-amended plots, but were not enough to be statistically significant.

New pocket-sized bulletin on beneficial insects

Christina DiFonzo Entomology Michigan State University

Now available from the MSU Extension Bulletin office: Identifying Natural Enemies in Field Crops , MSU Bulletin inventory number E2949. The cost is $10 per copy, $7 per copy for bulk orders (10 or more copies). (see image) Contact the MSU Bulletin office to order:

117 Central Services
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824-1001
Phone: 517-353-6740
Fax: 517-353-7168
Office Hours: M-F 8:00am - 5:00pm
http://www.emdc.msue.msu.edu/

During last year’s soybean aphid outbreak, I received numerous questions about beneficial insects. Beneficial insects play a critical role in managing soybean aphid populations (I’ve already seen ladybeetles cleaning-up aphid colonies on buckthorn this spring). And populations of many other field crop and vegetable pests are kept in check or reduced by natural enemies. This timely pocket guide (developed by Mary Gardiner, a graduate student in the MSU Biological Control Lab) has color pictures of common beneficial insects – both predators and parasitoids – and spiders. It provides information on identification, lifecycle and diet. The pocket-sized guide has glossy pages and a spiral binding, so you can use it in the field. Although it is geared for field crops, it is appropriate for use in other crops and by homeowners.

Additional information and sample pages from the flip book are at: http://www.ipm.msu.edu/pubs-natural.htm

Wisconsin publication provides grower data for vegetable farms of varied sizes

Susan Smalley
Extension Specialist
C.S. Mott Group for Sustainable Food Systems,
Michigan State University

Grower to Grower: Creating a Livelihood on a Fresh Market Vegetable Farm is a publication available from University of Wisconsin. It is the final report of a Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) research project that involved 19 vegetable growers who collected and shared data on their sales, labor and other business aspects. They used the data to create financial ratios that allowed them to compare small (less than 3 acres of active production), medium (3-12 acres of active production) and large (more than 12 acres) operations in a way that respected individual confidentiality.

Comparisons were made on:
* gross sales/acre
* net cash income/acre
* net cash income plus farm reinvestment/acre
* net cash to gross
* net cash income plus reinvestment divided by gross sales
* hourly wage for owner
* labor hours per acre
* labor performed by farm owner
* payroll expenses as a % of gross income
* net cash income hourly wage
* gross sales or net cash income to equipment value
* equipment value per acre

The report included complete descriptions about each of these plus a worksheet to help other farmers perform similar calculations. I believe you would find the report useful in working with current or potential fresh market gardeners.

The report's full text is available on line. Point your browser to www.cias.wisc.edu/ and then click on Report Helps Fresh Market Vegetable Growers Understand and Share Finances. Scroll to the bottom of that page where you can select the full report or a summary.

Reports from our organic growers

Indiana
Southeast Indiana—Gary Reding
The spring has been quite wet this year with frequent and heavy rains. Our plantings were delayed by two to three weeks, but now the crop is in and growing. Some of the lower lying areas have a reduced stand due to damping off. We have managed to rotary hoe the beans twice and they look better than the popcorn. The sod fields that were plowed later than we would like were too much for the rotary hoe so we have cultivated them early, but will be fighting the grass in the rows. All in all the weed pressure in the fields is not too bad considering what we’ve been through. Our hay making has also been a challenge with the weather.

Current practices that we are involved in are hay making and cultivating of popcorn and soybeans. We hope to cultivate at least two more times over the next couple of weeks on all fields. I have an idea that we will be drying out soon, so that shouldn’t be a problem. I want to finish up the first cutting of hay because we have our cattle in now and are rotating them through the pastures. We have been able to stay ahead of the Canada thistle by mowing and weed-eating them. So far we have none going to seed this year and I hope to keep it that way to nearly eliminate them in most fields. The cattle grazing and rotation has helped to keep them under control for the most part.

South Central Indiana—Dale Rhoads
From two weeks ago with temperatures into the 90s, we are now experiencing cooler than normal temperatures with lots of scattered thunderstorms. I have not had to water. Generally we put up 10,000 square feet of shade cloth over our salad greens growing areas around June 21 depending on weather and conditions, but we have not put them up yet this year. Typically we notice that salad crops grow fastest at 85-90 degree daytime temperatures with nighttime temperatures getting into the 60s. This is what we aim for in our greenhouses in cooler weather in the spring and fall. Two weeks ago we had temperatures of 90/60 degrees (daytime/nighttime) and did not put up shade waiting for 90/75 degree temperatures. But now we are experiencing 80/60 degree temperatures, and this is just fine for these crops. The cool weather is keeping the kales growing nicely and continuing to throw big 12-inch leaves. Typically, as the weather warms up the leaf size diminishes.

Something unusual is that in past years we have had good harvests of chard until the weather gets warmer and a fungus starts spotting the stems and leaves. The chard has not grown well and yet the disease problems have already started. I think it is just going to be a bad year for chard. This year we have continued to grow the Asian greens to add into our salad mix. Flea beetles are a severe problem as the weather warms up. After trying numerous strategies in the past for flea beetle control, this year we are back to using floating row covers. This has been working well. But recently we stopped using them since the weather is cool enough so the flea beetle population is low. The cooler weather has helped the head lettuce to size up nicely. We had red leaf at 1.5 pounds and the green and Romaine averaged 2 pounds per head. Packing was tough with only 18 heads fitting into a 24-head case box. By keeping the tomato and basil growing greenhouse mostly closed down, we are getting good and normal growth with those crops. The basil is especially beautiful and aromatic this year. The cooler weather is adding a little more weed pressure as the cooler or more typically springtime weeds continue to germinate. Squash is growing slowly.

We just finished the head lettuce harvest. We are currently harvesting salad greens, kales, dandelion, basil and cilantro. I have been putting some springtime growing areas into cover crops, buckwheat and oats. I have been cleaning up the head lettuce areas of weeds, catching the galisoga at the flowering stage. We are doing weekly plantings of corn. We had a nice crop of sour cherries this year.

In my last report I talked about June being the month of the War of the Weeds for us. There is one of two final battles to fight yet. I still have some flowering weeds in the kales and chard, but everything else is weeded and mulched and set for the year. Other than some weeding on corn and the weekly weeding on salad greens, we are basically through with weeding for the year. We generally hire two part-time employees to assist with the weeding and mulching, but didn’t this year due to promised work from some interns, who only did about half of what they said they would do, and the rest fell on me to do. I’ve been putting in 11 and 12 hour days weeding the last several weeks and wore myself out. But no weeds have seeded on any of our three acres and we just about have it set for the year with no weed germination, if I persevere for another week…. we’ll see.

In the next two weeks we will finish up weeding/mulching of long-season crops. We’ll keep up with the salad greens weekly planting, weeding, seedbed prep and harvest, and keep tying up tomatoes. We should have some apples, early Asian pears and some peaches coming on in next two weeks.

Illinois
Southwest Central Illinois—Floyd Johnson
We have been getting small showers. Not real wet and sort of dry, but it is helping cultivation. It is very hard to kill weeds with cultivation when it rains every day. We just got soybeans hoed for the second time and corn cultivated. I am trying to get the spreader on the small tractor to spread some micro nutrients. I haven’t used it for a while so it’s kind of tough finding all the settings, books, etc. Over the next two weeks I would like to rip corn and then cultivate it a second time and beans a first time. Then mow set aside to control weeds. Then it will be about time to mow road sides and hopefully have some fun before fall hits. I do have several projects to work on too.

Question
Does anybody know anything about feed mills? I am trying to make a more efficient way to handle feed in the amounts I am making now and in the near future, which is more than I used to do. Currently I am bucketing commodities into portable grinder/mixer behind a 50 hp tractor and dumping feed into buckets and barrels.

West Suburban Chicago—Steve Tiwald
Our area has had adequate rainfall. We received one-half inch last week, then 2.3 inches this past weekend.

We are direct seeding carrots again because we had poor germination with the first seeding. In the greenhouse we are seeding in trays fall crops of broccoli, cauliflower, pak choi, and kohlrabi. Every week we do another round of lettuces in the greenhouse for later transplanting to the field.

The weeds are coming on strong, so we are stirrup-hoeing and hand-weeding constantly. We are applying straw mulch to the onions. The tomatoes are growing well so we are adding strings to the trellis on a regular basis. Our harvesting has begun. We have CSA pickup on Tuesdays and Fridays, and harvest on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays and Fridays. This occupies a large amount of time and resources.

It is time for the squash vine borer adults to be laying eggs on the squash plants so we are scouting for the laying activity, eggs and larvae damage. We are weeding every day to try to keep them under control. We continue seeding lettuce in the greenhouse for later transplant to the field. We also continue four days a week of harvesting activities for CSA.

Northern Illinois—Dave Campbell
The rain that has fallen almost every day for the past two weeks has limited field work. One more field of soybeans to plant, which will hopefully take place no later than Saturday (July 1), otherwise we may need to switch to buckwheat. We finally started cutting hay this past Saturday, although we will be fortunate to get it baled by the end of this week. Soybeans have been slow in emerging. We are currently rotary hoeing soybeans and cultivating corn, plowing and disking ground that will hopefully be planted to soybeans, and cutting Canada thistle out of wheat.

In the next two weeks we will finish planting soybeans, rotary hoe soybeans, cultivate corn, and cut and bale hay.

Iowa
Northwest Iowa – Paul Mugge
We finally got rain just in time—about 2.25 inches over two weeks. Corn and beans look great. It dried off just in time also. I cultivated the beans and I’m ready to start corn again. The biggest corn is three feet tall and beans are eight to 10 inches. The weather has been cooler and very pleasant and things are really growing. The triticale looks great and is about two weeks from harvest. The oats finally headed and shot up and don’t look so bad now. The flax still looks bad—very short, little branching and lots of weeds. I mowed off several acres of oats and flax in order to prevent thistles from going to seed–-that hurts.

I will start cultivating corn for the last time today as soon as I get switched over to building ridges. The corn will very soon be too tall.

I have alfalfa down and it looks very good. I will start getting the combine ready for small grains and start walking beans.

Question
Canada thistle—still…

Michigan
East Michigan—John Simmons
First it was really dry. Then it was really wet. Now it’s just right. Intermittent rains continue to flush weeds and spur crops growth. Dodging wet fields to cultivate before weeds get too tall to cover has been challenging, and not always 100 percent successful.

We are currently doing row cultivating in corn, soybeans and sunflowers to manage weeds, soil structure and crop growth as well as mowing thistle patches.

Over the next two weeks we will continue row cultivation, preparing fields for buckwheat planting, prepare combine for small grain harvest, manage fence for rotational grazing cattle, place hogs on pasture and attend the Fourth of July parade.

Question
Is there any soybean rust in sight? (Editor’s note: to check the national monitoring site, visit: http://www.sbrusa.net/)